In highly available enterprise networks, redundancy is not optional—it’s an architectural requirement. Redundant links between switches offer alternate paths in case of device or link failure. However, redundancy also opens the door to serious problems such as broadcast storms and looping frames, which can paralyze the network. To address this, Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) was introduced to eliminate loops by logically blocking redundant paths. While STP was revolutionary for its time, it had limitations, especially in convergence speed. When a topology change occurred, STP could take up to 50 seconds…

Virtual Local Area Networks (VLANs) are a powerful method of segmenting Layer 2 traffic in enterprise and campus networks. As VLAN deployment grows in complexity, so does the need for reliable and scalable methods to carry VLAN traffic across the network. One of the fundamental tools to achieve this is the use of trunk ports and the configuration of a native VLAN. These features are pivotal when it comes to enabling communication between multiple switches and ensuring traffic for various VLANs can coexist over a single physical connection. Understanding how…

As digital communication becomes the backbone of modern life, the role of networking hardware has become increasingly critical. One essential component in this setup is the network switch. While often overlooked in casual discussions about the internet or local networks, switches play a fundamental role in ensuring that data travels efficiently from one point to another within a network. Network switches are intelligent devices that operate behind the scenes in homes, offices, data centers, and enterprise environments. They are designed to connect devices such as computers, servers, printers, and wireless…

When data is exchanged over a network, it needs a reliable mechanism to reach the correct destination. One of the most critical elements enabling this reliability is the Transmission Control Protocol, or TCP. Within this protocol, a key component ensures that data gets delivered not just to the right device but to the correct application or service running on that device. This component is known as a TCP port. A TCP port acts as a virtual communication endpoint on a device. It’s not a physical object but rather a logical…

In today’s digital age, cyber threats are growing more sophisticated and harder to detect. As organizations become increasingly reliant on digital infrastructure, understanding the nature of cybersecurity attacks becomes essential. One of the foundational concepts in cybersecurity is the classification of attacks into two broad categories: active and passive. This classification is based on the level of interaction an attacker has with the targeted system. While both types of attacks pose significant risks, they operate differently. Active attacks aim to directly affect system operations, whereas passive attacks quietly monitor or…

In the world of networking, transferring files from one device to another is a routine task. Whether it’s a developer uploading website content, a system administrator backing up server data, or a user downloading files from a remote location, file transfer protocols play a vital role. Among these protocols, FTP or File Transfer Protocol has remained a foundational technology for decades. This article provides a comprehensive look into what FTP is, how it works, and why it continues to be relevant in modern networking environments. Understanding the Concept of FTP…

SQL injection is one of the most dangerous and commonly exploited vulnerabilities in web applications. It allows attackers to interfere with the queries that an application makes to its database. This interference can lead to unauthorized access, manipulation of data, or even full system compromise. Despite being a well-documented and well-known vulnerability, SQL injection continues to plague web applications due to poor input validation and improper use of SQL queries. This article provides an in-depth overview of SQL injection, including how it works, how it is exploited, the types of…

In today’s interconnected world, cyber threats are increasing in both frequency and complexity. To defend against these threats, cybersecurity professionals rely heavily on a wide array of specialized tools. These tools are essential for ensuring the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of systems and data. Whether it’s identifying vulnerabilities, monitoring network traffic, managing user access, or conducting penetration testing, cybersecurity tools form the backbone of modern digital defense strategies. Understanding how these tools work and what role they play can provide a strong foundation for both beginners and experienced professionals. The…

Trunking is a vital technique in networking that helps streamline traffic flow between interconnected devices like switches and routers. It is primarily used to carry traffic for multiple VLANs (Virtual Local Area Networks) over a single network connection. This method reduces the need for multiple physical cables and simplifies network management, especially in larger environments such as enterprise networks, data centers, and campuses. In a modern network, trunking improves efficiency by ensuring that traffic from different VLANs can travel through the same physical link without interference. This is made possible…

In a world increasingly dependent on digital infrastructure, cyber threats are no longer distant possibilities—they are daily realities. From phishing emails and ransomware to unauthorized access and insider threats, organizations must be ready to respond at a moment’s notice. This is where cyber incident response comes into play. It offers a planned and strategic approach to managing cybersecurity breaches and ensuring quick recovery with minimal disruption. Cyber incident response is not just a set of actions taken after an attack. It’s a proactive and organized method of preparing for, identifying,…

Cybersecurity has become a critical focus for organizations as digital threats grow in complexity and volume. Professionals entering this field must have both theoretical knowledge and practical understanding to defend systems, data, and networks. One way to assess this expertise is through technical interviews. This article explores some of the most commonly asked cybersecurity interview questions and their answers. It is designed to help aspiring professionals build confidence, gain insight into the expectations of recruiters, and prepare thoroughly for job interviews. What is cybersecurity Cybersecurity is the practice of protecting…

Cybersecurity is often imagined as a technical battlefield where experts deploy firewalls, antivirus software, and encryption tools to fight off cybercriminals. However, one of the most overlooked yet critically important components of this digital defense is the human factor. Whether it’s clicking on a suspicious link, using a weak password, or oversharing online, human behavior can either fortify or sabotage even the most robust digital security systems. The average person may not think they play a role in global cybersecurity, but everyday actions have significant consequences. Cybercriminals thrive on manipulation,…

In today’s interconnected landscape, cyber threats have emerged as one of the most significant risks to individuals, organizations, and governments. As digital technologies become more deeply embedded in daily life, the opportunities for cybercriminals to exploit weaknesses have grown exponentially. From simple viruses to state-sponsored espionage campaigns, the spectrum of cyber threats is wide and continually evolving. The financial, reputational, and operational damages caused by cyberattacks have reached record-breaking levels. According to recent global estimates, cybercrime will cost the world more than ten trillion dollars annually by the middle of…

In the ever-expanding world of digital communication, the role of port numbers in networking is both essential and often overlooked by beginners. Whether you are loading a webpage, checking your email, or using a video conferencing application, your device relies on a system of port numbers to ensure the correct delivery of data. Port numbers serve as communication endpoints and enable different services and applications to operate simultaneously over the same network. Port numbers are not physical components; rather, they are logical constructs used by transport layer protocols such as…

As technology continues to evolve, so do the threats that target digital systems and infrastructures. This dynamic nature of cyber threats has led to a surge in demand for skilled network security professionals. Organizations across sectors seek individuals who not only possess strong technical knowledge but also demonstrate critical thinking, problem-solving skills, and an understanding of real-world security challenges. Preparing for a network security interview involves mastering both fundamental and advanced concepts. Interviewers typically look for clarity of understanding, the ability to apply concepts practically, and awareness of industry best…